CD CO 'mm =1f wm f.'m^m J'M SD 225 A5 1904 ni?»ilffiflfllnwfl«iw«^wain?!!B!TOv^ w: -■ J^ ■ : :■■' '.'Ma;' M ■•':r;-i!ii«^:'i^ Digitized by the Internet Archive in 2010 with funding from University of Toronto http://www.archive.org/details/forestryofjapaOOjapa L^x^.i^cK. ^aJ^(Vw* For^^VsjL^ I i- FORESTRY OF JAPAN PUBLISHED BY IMPERIAL BUREAU OF FORESTRY DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE AND COMMERCE TOKYO Printed at ttik " JAPAN TIMES'* Office 1904 LIBRARY FACULTY OF FORESTRY UNIVERSITY OF TORONTO >'v \OiOii / h This work aims to give an adequate idea of forestry in Japan, and treats of State, Crown, and private forests. More attention is naturally given to State and Crown forests on account of the insufficiency of information about private forests. All the data were prepared by the Department of Agri- culture and Commerce being mostly taken from report for 1902, when the data for that year were not available, the reports for 1903 or 1901 were used, preference being given to the later year. As the units of distance, ri, cho, ken, and shaku have been used, equivalent to about 2^ miles, 1,200 yards, 6 ft. and 1 ft. respectively. The unit of capacity is the koku, equivalent to 181 litres. The unit of weight is the kin, which is almost equal to li lbs. The unit of area is the cho, equal to about 2i acres. The unit for measuring timber is the shakujime, equivalent to 12 cu. ft., and that for fuel wood is the tana, or 72 cubic ft. The monetary unit is the yen, equal to about $ 0.50 U.S. gold. In many cases, the dates are given according to the Japanese system the first year of Meiji being 1868. All the reports are made for the fiscal year which extend- ing from April 1st to March 31st. The common Japanese names of trees together with the botanical ones are given. F. GOTO. Commissioner for Bureau of Forestry, DePa)iment of Tokyo, March 1904. Agriculture and Commerce. CONTENTS. Introductory I. Area and Ownership of the Forests II. Forest Zones and Sylvicultural Conditions III. Adjustment of the Forests IV. Exploitation and Treatment of the Forests V. Forest- Planting and Transport VI. Wood-Produce VII. Official supervision of the Forests VIII. P'orestry Education IX. Forestry Legislature PAGE. I 2 lO 27 34 44 53 59 61 .. 64 -^»*o*^^- H I ERRATA, Page Line For Read Page Line For Read 2 30 1890 1901 32 36 add area after whose 4 21 1904 1914 35 4 Tokaido Takaido 4 32 1889 1894 35 5 Kii Voshino 5 4 1889 1872 35 II of high forest the treatment of 5 5 1,453,342 1,443,342 treatment high rotation 9 I 2,314,296 3,283,306 Z1 35 " Motoki" " Honboku " 9 2 3M 4-7 37 35 " Nami-motoki " " Nami hon- lO H four seven boku " lO 15 July October 38 3 14 13 II 20 aers areas Z^ 6 " Motoki " " Honboku " 12 6 Arctic Frigid 38 8 " Motoki'' " Honboku " 13 12 Camphore Camphora 42 16 Tufa Tuff 13 32 Boxus Buxus 42 17 Koluke Kotsuke 14 4 Kawara Kaharu 42 35 Bicho Bincho 15 5 Shite Shide 43 30 Shirohe Shirabe 15 8 oak Ubaniekashi 43 30 Tara I'su'^a 15 28 Shite Shide 45 6 1888 1878 i6 22 thenbergi Thunbergii 47 5 485,727 48,572,7 i6 35 Sieb S. 47 6 658,402 65,840,2 19 7 Yakuj ima Vakushima 47 25 '^ T J .> 7.6 19 27 Abias Abies 47 25 ^■1 9.7 20 12 Tosh ima Oshima 48 II with conifers of conifers with 20 '5 Arctic Frigid broad-leafed 20 19 bicolos bicolor trees 22 17 di^a^v out only ( idd important 48 12-1 3 plan-ing planting 22 16 add'xw Hokkaido rt;//^r timbers 48 13 broad-leafed tree- '■> mixed woods 23 18 Mesm. Wesm. 48 32 brood-leafed other 23 28 6 20 51 14- 1 6 Devdara deorata 23 37 specie species 55 4 1892 1895 24 12 not the 55 35 669,149 699,149 24 '3 draw out any 56 7 0.082 0.092 24 21 Leavis Laivis 56 10 340 240 24 22 add var. jiuvinervis \vg. after 56 12 22 32 D.C. 57 15 1,958,140 1,958,640 25 5 Sachaliensis sachalinensis 58 4 0.095 0.099 25 10 '1 arunai Tarumai 58 4 0-533 0.532 25 II Otoneton ( )nneton 58 27 0.337 0.237 25 Gaeten Gaerten 59 I 0045 0.073 29 35 1903 1913 59 I 0.125 0.232 32 30 contour l^olyganol 59 2 0.138 0.225 32 35 .'Idd until 19c I after mcasure- 59 ^ 0.093 0.218 nient 60 10 add in the present time after 32 36 contour liolygonal Oflices FORESTRY OF JAPAN, I. INTRODUCTORY. The forests of Japan, her natural ornament, which occupy more than one half the area of the Island Empire, would appear to have exerted an inspiring influence upon the mind of her in- habitants, for their love of forests and the luxuriant sylvan growth is observed to be almost intuitive. We are also inclined to think that the Japanese may owe their patriotism and aesthetic sense to the profoundly sympathetic influence the forests seem to have exercised upon them. They are instinctively aware of their duties, — so to speak — tow^ards the forests as is indicated by the endeavors they never spare to meet the ever increasing demand for the produce of the forest, to change them in accord- ance with the new requirements and to maintain their supplies permanently. The forests of Japan, had, while the country was secluded, maintained their primitive character, but with the Restoration the forests underwent a revolution in the extent and modes of their utilization. Besides a considerable increase at home in the demand for timber and fuel not only in connection with industrial and min- — 2 — ing enterprises and for ordinary building purposes, but also for use as railroad sleepers and telegraph poles as well as for the manufacture of the various wood articles and paper, the recent development in the carrying trade has caused the traders in forest produce to seek customers abroad, especially in China and Korea. All this has in recent years exercised an unequal influence on Japanese forests so that, while, on the one hand, there are districts where reckless felling and all the evils resulting from it have obliged the Government to exercise control as to cutting, on the other hand there are in some parts of the country vast areas of wooded-land maintaining all its primitive features unaltered. This anomaly has brought to light the fact that the plans hitherto followed in the management of forests are no longer adequate to meet the future increase of the population and the requirements of the new civilization, but points to the necessity for striving to develop to the full the natural capabilities of the forests by increasing their productive powers by the appli- cation of regular technical methods. II. AREA AND OWNERSHIP OF THE FORESTS. The Area. — According to the latest statistics the area occupied by forests is 23,087,365 clio, i.e. over 59 per cent, of the whole area of the country which measures 24,794.36 square ri or 38,559,078 cho. (The area of Formosa and the Pescadores is not included in the above computation, not having yet been ascer- tained.) Of the two divisions in the Japanese forests, " Utilization Forests" and " Protection Forests," the latter are further divided into two kinds, "Absolute" and ** Ordinary." The area of the Protection Protection forests in lfl9| \Vas 689,469 cho of which Forests. 4,803 clio belonged to the ''Absolute" class and 684,662 cho to the "Ordinary" category. All the other forests l)elong to the Utilization class, measuring 22,397,896 — 3 — cho. Those forests exclusively maintained for the utilization of their produce are left to be managed by the owners Utilization as they like. Those forests of this class which belong Forests, to the State and Imperial Household are generally managed and tended in accordance with modern technical rules and bid fair to become greatly improved with regard to their productiveness. But those owned by the peo])le, with the exception of a very small number, are entirely left to nature, nothing being done to increase their utility. Ownership of the Forests. — The areas of the forests of these different , ownerships are as follows ; — cko. States Forests 13,125,320 Imperial Forests *. 2,091,785 People's Forests „ 7,870,260 The people's forests comprise those owned by Shinto and Buddhist temples, communes and private individuals, their re- spective areas being as follows : — cho. Shinto and Buddhist Temple Forests 167,629 Communal P'orests ...• '>7I4>754 Private Forests 5j987,877 State Forests. — The State forests are managed by the Govern- ment and by the Imperial Household Department, w'hile over the people's forests the Government merely exercise administra- tive supervision in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law. Of the State forests measuring 13,125,320 cho, 7,632,831 cho are under the jurisdiction and management of the Agricultural and Commercial Department, .of the Imperial Government, but 5,492,489 clio in Hokkaiiio ..ate placed under the control of the Home Department. The forests in Formosa are maintained accord- ing to special laws and regulations by the Governor-General •under the supervision , of the Minister for Home Affairs, — 4 — These figures are not, it must be owned, the result of ac- curate scientific surveying, the statistics relating to the State and Imperial forests being taken from the Government Forest Kegister compiled according to the Provisional Regulations for Government Forests of 1875 and those relative to the people's forests from the Land Register prepared by the Treasury Depart-- ment for the purpose of taxation in accordance with the Regu- lations for the Revision of the Land Tax established in 1873. These registers being based on very rough surveys the fibres above mentioned will have to be more or less modified, when the work of forest adjustments and investigation now going on shall have been completed. Inaccuracies are especially likely to be found in the case of the people's forests for, as the years went by, there must have been lands converted from other classes of land into forests and from forests into farm or build- ing lots. In this period of renovations the areas of forests are sub- ject to changes both absolutely and in respect of proprietorship, as transfers and conversion into other classes of estates are taking place and such changes will not cease until the completion in 19()4 of the work of the special State forest adjustment undertaken by the Government. Imperial Forests. — In 1899 States forests in Kanagawa, Yama- nashi, Shizuoka, Nagano, Gifu, Aichi, Miyo, Aomori, Iwate and Tochigi prefectures and Hokkaido, to the extent of 3,649'848 cho in all, were transferred to the Imperial Household to constitute the Imperial forests. These forests being similar to State forests in their nature and features, it goes without saying that some of them are paying concerns, while others are not. In 1892 ]the House- hohi Department commenced the work of investigatir^g the Imperial forests, as the result of which some of them have been disposed of from time to time since 1898. In 18«8|| over 1,370,000 cho in Hokkaido were returned to the State control, while some forests were resold to such temples, Shinto or Buddhist, as had formerly been their possession, in compliance with the regulations establish- ed for the special disposal of such forests. Besides, some of those that had been classed as Government property, through error, on — — the occasion of the land tax revision in the early year of Meiji were restored to their rightful owners. Such transfer not having yet been completed, it will be years before the area of the Imperial forests becomes fixed. From 18f^ to 1900 this kind of his Maj" esty's property increased by 59,533 cho while decreasing by 1,453,- 342 c/to, so that the clear loss was 1,383,809 clio. The increase was principally due to the correction of the former computation of areas and to the declaration of lands presenting a sylvan ap- pearance as forests, while the chief causes of the decrease were the expropriation of some forests in Hokkaido and the reclamation and sale of some forests for conversion into arable land. The Imperial forests are divided into two classes : "Hereditary " and "Ordinary." The former comprises such forests as are so thick- ly wooded and extensive as to furnish enough material for a reg- ular working plan framed on the basis of economical considera- tions. Such forests are made extremely difficult of conversion by the Imperial House Law. Hence changes of areas rarely occur except in the forests belonging to the other class. In 1901 there were 997,250 clw of the Hereditary class and 1,100,536 cho of the Ordinary class. Private Forests. — The forests owned by civic corporations, religious establishments and private persons are now subject to greater and more frequent changes than the State and Imperial forests because of the recent slackening of Government control over them and the vicissitudes in the economic conditions of the country And the decrease of the forest area since the Restoration is mainly due to the reckless felling of woods owned by private persons- We have no statistics showing the extent of such reduction, but see them indirectly shown in the increase of land under cultivation and pasturage. Private forests, however, have increased to a certain extent by the purchase of some State or Imperial property. Plains and Moors.— Besides the forests above mentioned there are in this country vast areas of land the uses of which are yet undecided. Tljey are known by the name of " Genya " (plains and moors) as distinguished from forests, being a class of land established on the occasion of the land tax revision. In the early years of Meiji the classification of lands was made merely with ^ - 6 - regard to theii features, without paying any attention to their position or nature or to the relations they bear toward each other. Thus the division of land into Forests and *' Genya" seems to have been based on no other consideration than the presence or absence of trees. At present there are over 2,645,322 cho of " Genya " which, we may observe, will in the near future, except such portions of them as may from their nature be made into pastures or cultivat- ed land, be mostly converted into forests. This class of land is especially abundant in the northern provinces of the main island and in Hokkaido. Some of the "Genya" already present quite a woody appearance and bid fair to become perfect forests in no distant futures. Of the above-mentioned area of the " Genya " 1,434,666 cho belong '^to the State; 157,174 cho to His M'ajesty the Emperor, the remlining 1,053,482 cho being either privajte or communal pro- perty. % Distribution of Forests. — Forests are found everywhere in * flie Empire from Formosa on the south to Hokkaido on the north. But their distribution is' varied according to the general shape of the country, the height of the mountains and hills and the density of the population. With the exception of a small number of forests on level ground found here and there, Japanese forests form a long string on the mountains running lengthwise through the middle of the country. In Hokkaido the mountain ranges which traverse the whole island, lengthwise and crosswise, constitute a splendid forest-area. In the main island a General feature* chain of forests begins with Mount Hakodda of Distribution, in Mutsu. It runs through Rikuchu, then appears as Mount Azuma in Uzen, reaches the boundary line between Shinano and Echigo, whence it goes on to form the Kiso forests, where ])ending southward it runs in an unbroken line from Mount Asama in Shinano to the Imperial forests of Fuji and Amagi lying between the provinces of Kai and Suruga. In the province of Kii the range starts from Mount Kumano whence it runs to meet the woods in the Yoshino districts, Yamato. In Siiikoku the line crosses the boundary between Sanuki and Awa and proceeds over the summit of Mount Ishizuchi to the forests ~ 7 — in Tosa. In Kyushu the line is continued through Mount Aso and stretches to Mount Kirishima toward the south. Thus the forests of Japan mostly lie in the mountainous "Distribution as districts along the backbone of the country and to Climate. are scarce on the plains along the seaside. Again they are most numerous in the cold regions in the north and considerably less in the warmer regions in the south, as shown in the following table: — Hokkaido. Northern Prov., ! Main Island. Southern Prov., Main Island. cho. chc 7. cho. State Forests 5,492,890.0 5,773,689.7 698,480.8 Imperial Forests 651,649.5 1,135,074.2 305,061.7 Private Forests 14,827.7 3,184, 358.1 3,283,306.1 Total 6,158,966.2 10,093, 122.0 4,286648.6 sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. x\.rea •.. ,., ••« ••• •«* 5,987-03 9,765-77 5,149-73 Population 982,426 19,439,079 14,110,730 cho. cho. cho. Area of Forests per sq. m. ... 1,029.6 I, 034-5 832.4 cho. cho. cho. Area of Forests per head ... 6.27 0.52 0.30 Forest Area as Compared" with the Area of the 1 % \ 66 % 66 % 53 whole Country 1 Shikoku. Kyushu. Okinawa. Total. cho. cho. cho. cho. State Forests 336,312.2 777,718.6 46,629.5 13,125,319.6 Imperial Forests — — — 2,091,785.4 Private Forests 689,761.0 687,588.8 10,418.8 7,870,260.5 Total 1,026,073.0 1,465,307.4 57,048.3 23,087,3655 sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. sq. m. Area 1,227.21 2,734.08 143-98 24,998.80 Population 2,933,657 6,420,793 465,470 44,352,155 cho. cho. cho. cJio. Area of Forests per sq. m.... 836.2 535-9 396.2 923.6 * cho. cho. cho. cho. Area of Forests per Head ... 0.35 0.23 0.12 0.52 Forest Area as Compared" with the Area of the % 53 % 34 26 % 59 whole Country ) — 8 -. e Note : I. The above table does not include the forests in Formosa and the Kuriles, ■which are under investigation at present. ^^ - 2. The " Northern Provinces, Main Island " in the above table comprise the districts under the jurisdiction of the Aomori, Akita, Miyagi, Tokyo, Nagano, and Major Forestry Offices, while the " Southern Provinces " comprise the districts under the Osaka, and Hiroshima Offices. The above table shows that in Hokkaido and in the north- ern provinces of the main island, forests occupy 6^^ of the whole area, while in the Okinawa archipelago only 26^ is wooded land. Kyushu has 34^ and the southern provinces of the main island and Shikoku have 53^ each. Leaving Hokkaido, which was opened up to colonization only 30 years ago out of consideration for the present, Japan has high and steep mountains in the north which are densely covered with forests. In the middle of the island, near Mount Fuji, the land reaches the utmost elevation and thence to- ward the south-west the country becomes more and more open, with a range of hills which possesses only a few high mountains. These geographical features have had much to do with the unequal distribution of forests in the country. The difference of economical development in the various districts was also a powerful agent in this connection. In Shikoku, Kyushu and the western portion of Honshu or the inain island, where civilization made its first appear- ance in Japan, the people have had better means of transportation than in the other parts of the Empire, and the demand for the timber increasing in proportion to the growth of the population, forests have been rather recklessly felled. This together with the greater need than in other regions for agricultural land must have led to the present scarcity of forest land in these parts. From the stand- point of population, Okinawa with 1 tan 2 se of forest land per soul rank the lowest ; Kyushu has 2 tan 3 se ; the southern provinces of Honshu, 3 tan; Shikoku, 3 tan 5 se; the northern provinces of Hon- shu, 5 tan 2 se ; Hokkaido where the population is smaller than in any other division of the Empire, enjoys by far the greatest share of forests per soul, to wit ; 6 cho 2 tan 7 so. In districts having a dense population there are more private and communal forests, especially the former, as compared with State forests, than in districts thinly populated. In the southern provinces of Honshu we have 698,480 — y — cho of State forests against 2^244,^^ cho of private and communal forests, tlie ratio being |i7 to 1 in favor of the latter. In Shikoku this ratio is 2 to 1, while in Kyushu the two classes of foreslfc are of nearly equal extent. On the contrary, in the northern provinces of Honshu private forests occupy only one-half the area of the State forests. In localities abounding in private or communal forests, the State forests are all situated in remote mountain districts, the forests near market towns having facilities for the transportation of timber being owned either by private individuals or by juridical persons. All these forests except a very few have hitherto been managed without any regard to sound principles and are therefore in a very impoverished condition. Some of them have lately been classed as protection forests in accordance with the provisions of the Forest Law. It is indeed in these districts that the greatest number of protection forests is found. Ill-managed forests are only too numerous everywhere in the Empire, but their pi'oducing capacity being made very small in Districts of consequence of injudicious cutting, in some dis- Insuffici-nt Supply, tricts the local forests are inadequate to meet even the ordinary demand for timber. Such is already the case in the southern provinces of Honshu and Kyushu, where the recent development of raining and industry has produced a con- siderably increased demand for timber. In those parts the local forests supply little besides w^ood for the purpose of fuel, and timber is purchased from other districts in yearly increasing quantities. The northern provinces of Honshu and Hokkaido are yet rich in forests both in regard to area and producing capa- city, a great number of forests being still placed outside the utilization domain. There we find forests in the neighborhood of towns and villages, the produce of which being more than sufficient to meet the local needs for building, industrial and mining purpose, is exported to other districts and countries in large quantities. Thus Hokkaido exports timber to Honshu and to China and Korea for use in house, and railroad building Hiba (Thujopsis dolabrata) and Sugi (Cryptomeria japonica) timber produced in Aomori and Akita prefectures is exported not only to Tokyo cud Osaka but to Shikoku and Kyushu. ~ 10 — III. FOREST ZONES AND SYLYICULTURAL CONDITIONS. The geographical position and features of the land, the climate and the geological nature of the soil exercise manifold influences on the species of trees growing in such land and on their rate of growth. Forest Zones. — Owing to her geographical formation and more particularly to her climatic condition, no place of Japan except a portion of the Kuriles group and a few high mountains, is unfit for the growth of forest trees. We have all species of such trees growing in Japan from those belonging to the Torrid zone to those of the Frigid. Thus Japan is as rich as any country in the world in her arboreal flora. Extremes of temperature are unknown owing to the peculiar distribution of land and water and to the geographical posi- tion, the annual average in Formosa being 23° C. and that of Kamikawa in Hokkaido 5°.l. Taking the averages of the §ij)b\,^ months from April to vt%i (months, having, so to speak, the great- est influences on the growth of forest trees) we find that Kyu- shu indicates 21°.2 ; Shikoku 20°. 9 ; the southern provinces of Honshu 20°.4 : the northern provinces 18°.4 ; and in Hakkaido 12.°7. The annual average is seldom found even in the high mountain districts to fall below 10°C. In comparing these with Dove's recognised standard temperatures, it is found that they are higher by 1° for the summer months and 7° lower for the winter months. Sylvicultural Geology. The land occupied by the sylvan flora of Japan has rocks belonging to almost all geological groups from the Achaean to the Cainozoic. They are different in different places and very complex in structure. The forests in Hokkaido mostly stand on new volcanic rocks and sedimentary rocks, such as sandstone, tuffs, and conglomerate belonging to the Tertiary system and in a limited space upon Palaeozoic rocks. The forests in the Akita and Aomori prefectures in North Japan are found upon igneous rocks of the Tertiary ;?ystem. In Central Japan tlie mountain ranges facing the Pacific Ocean geologically belong to the Archaean and Palaeozoic groups, while tli<^ forests in the Kiso districts are flourishing upon granite and other iossess forests enough, to meet the local demand for timber. As the result of continued reckless felling that has been going on in these regions for many years, there remain only a few forests preserving their piimitive features, and in Honshu it miglit be said that there are no such forests except wiihin the precincts of the Shinto or Buddhist temples. — 13 — The sylvicultural characteristic of Sub-Tropical regions is that tbey are in possession of broad-leafed evergreens, but as the result of careles . cutting and conflagrations deciduous broad-leafed species and the red pine have made intrusions changing the sylvan aspect to a remarkable degree. In accordance with the present features the forests in these regions have to be divided into three classes, broad-leafed evergreen, broadleafed deciduous and pine forests. Timber Trees in Sub-Tropical Forests. — The species of chief importance to the sylviculturist among the broad-leafed evergreen trees growing in this zone are no more than the undermentioned : — Camphor Tree (Cinnamomum Camphore, Nees): — Being a. native of this zone, the camphor tree grows in Shikoku, Kyusliu, Formosa and the province of Kii in Honshu. This species is sometimes found forming a big forest. It grows every- where in this zone, if the soil is clayey and fertile, especially in places facing the south and free from cold winds. In Formosa it is found as high forest, either pure or mixed, up to the height of 1000 metres above the sea level. In Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu, old and big trees of this species are found here and there, thanks to the time-honored custom of using them as ornamental groves of both Buddhist and Shinto temples. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous and has a peculiar odor. It is prized for use in making valuable articles of furniture as well as for orna- mental purposes. It lasts well in water and has been valued from ancient times in shipbuilding. In recent years the demand . for it as material for the production of camphor valuable in the various branches of industry has very largely increased and forests have been planted both by the Government and by private persons. Tsuge (Boxus Sempervirens, var. Japonica, Mak.): — This tree even in the largest specimen measures not more than 50 centimetres in diameter and 15 metres in height. The timber is exceedingly hard and close and fine grained, so that the year- rings can hardly be distinguished. The inner wood is lustrous and pretty and is used not only in fine sculpture but in the — 14 — making of valuable articles and nice rules and instruments because of its freedom from shrinkage or expansion, whether •wet or dry. The tree grows in Kyushu, Izu and other provinces, especially in the Kawara and Koshoyaraa State forests in Kyushu and in the private forests in Mikura and Miyake islands in Izu. Is a shade-loving tree and grows well in calcareous soil. The young trees are liable to frost damage, hence they must be made to grow under protecting trees. Reproduction by means of planting young shoots or the inser- tion of sprigs. JJbame-gashi (Quercus phyllireoides A. Gr.) : — The several varieties of Kashi (oak) are the most widely distributed of the broad-leafed evergreens. The Ubame is found in the southern provinces of Honshu, in Awa, Kazusa and Shimosa, in Kii and in the southern part of Shikoku. On the shores of Tosa and Kii, they are found growing in pure woods, but in other places mixed with other varieties of Kashi. The timber is white with a shade of yellow, is the hardest and heaviest of all timbers produced in Japan. Is used in house building where hardness and strength are required, but the chief use is in charcoal making. Considered as the best fuel wood in Japan. Ichii-ganhi (Quercus gilva, Bl.) : Shira-gashi (Quercus Vibra- yeana. Fr.) : Aka-gashi (Quercus acuta, Thumb.) : — These three species are the most extensively utilized of al^ broad-leafed trees. The timber closely resembles that of the Ubame-gashi ; but its growth is quicker than the growth of trees of that species. Is valued in the making of the handles of agricultural and other tools and implements ; also in making wheels and rudders. The Ichii is sometimes found growing so big as 55 centimetres in diametre and 30 metres in height, the bole measuring 15 metres. Under the old r(3gime the wood of this tree was highly prized for handles of spears and in the several clans there were strict regulations forbidding the felling of trees of this species. Grows in Kyushu, Shikoku and the southern provinces of Honshu. Pure woods are rare ; found mixed with other speciee of Kashi. Very widely distriduteb; — 15 — fond of shade and grows well under standard trees. This tree is reproduced either naturally or by planting. The deciduous broad-leafed trees belonging to this zone are mostly found in planted woods, principal species being Kunu^i, Konara and Shite. Kunugi (Quercua serrata, Bl.) : — This species ninks high among Japanese trees in affording excellent firewood ; ranks next only to the oak for use in making charcoal, the far-famed Sakura and Ikeda charcoal being made from tliis wood. Not found in mountain regions. The home districts of these trees were limited to the neighborhood of the province of Settsu and a part of the Musashi plain. But the trees being easily made to form a coppice under a short-term rotation founded on very economical calculations, they are now found everywhere in the country planted as private property, except in the northern half of Honshu and the whole of Hokkaido. The bark contains tannin and is therefore used for dyeing purposes and in the curing of skins. The wood is also extensively used as logs for growing thereon Shiitakef an edible mushroom. Konara (Quercus glandulifera, Bl.): — Also valued as a firewood and charcoal yielder and commands a large sale. Found as a principal tree in natural mixed forests in the hilly and mountainous districts of Honshu, covering immense tracts ; also found in Hokkaido. Like Kunugi it is somewhat fond of light and may grow in any land holding a suitable quantity of moisture within the temperate regions. It is coming into vogue for the making of artificial coppices of this species of oak mixed with Kunugi, Shite and other trees. The Pine family is represented by two species : Akjmatsti or "Red pine" and Kuromatsu or ''Black pine:" Akamatsu, or "Red Pine" vPinus densifiora, S. et Z.) :— The most widely distributed of all the coniferous trees in Japan being found from the southern extremity of Kyushu to the southern portion of Hokkaido; thrives in all soils except in places where more or less water always stagnates. Is fond of dry, well-drained land yellowish or reddish in color. It takes possession of defoi-ested areas before other kinds of — 16 forest-trees begin to grow. In the southern portion of Honshu it is found in excellent condition at the height of 2,000 metres above the sea. It demands light and hates shade. Forma splendid forests either by natural or artificial regeneration. ISIostly found in pure woods ; sometimes as mixed woods planted with the bamboo, Konara and other trees. Because of its hardy nature and speedy growth, communes, religious establishments and private persons are very fond of planting groves composed of these trees. In the southern and central portions of Honshu, where, in consequence of wanton felling, the soil has been greatly impoverished, the red pine will come to occupy vast areas in the near future. The wood, which is yellowish white with a shade of red, is hard, strong and elastic and contains a large percentage of resinous substances, which makes it proof against moisture ; hence prized for use in engineering works and as mining props. Used for building purposes though not nearly equal to Siigi and Hinoki in this respect. As firewood ranks among the most indispensable kinds of wood used for that purpose. The " pine mushroom " (Matsutake), king of table muihrooms, grows in the " red pine " forests in the southern part of Honshu. Kuromatsu, or "Black Pine" (Pinus thenbergii. Pari.): — Like "red pine " it serves various purposes. The wood, of reddish c:)lor, is strong and hard and contains a very lai-ge percentage of resinous substances. Being very durable is suited for bridge foundations and for use in genei-al earthwork engineering. As firewood, it is valued as a great heat-producer ! the root-wood being especially rich in resin is used as torches. Thrives well in sandy soils alonoo planting is fitted for sylviculturists with small capital. M()8d (Phyllostachys mitis, Rivier) : — The largest of the bamboo family ; sometimes found of such dimensions as 30 centimetres in diameter and 25 metres in height. Planted in groves mostly in Kyushu, Kii and the provinces adjacent to it. Valued for the manufacture of tools and utensils. Temperate Forests. — The Temperate sylvan flora extend from the northern half of Honshu to the southern half of the Hokkaido, between 36° and 43.° X. L., where the average annual temperatures range from 6° to 13° C. The Temperate forests rise in Formosa to the height of 3,500 metres: in Shikoku 1,800 metres; in Central Honshu a little lower, to wit, 1,500 metres; and in South Hokkaido 600 metres. These forests cover a large area and not a few of them maintain their primitive features. Being mostly natural woods of splendid trees they form the most important item of Japanese sylvan wealth. But as in these regions the climate gets rather cold and the snow lies on the ground during half the year, the trees are liable to be damaged by snow and require no small amount of tending and protection. Timber Trees in Temperate Forests. — The number of the species of trees belonging to these regions is over 60 but the more important of them are Hinoki, Sugi, Hiha, Koya-mahi, Saivara, Nezuko, Momi, Tsuga, Ira-momi, Bara-momi, Himeko-matsu, Choficn- matsu, Ooyo-matsu and Kara-matsu in the Coniferous class ; and Keyaki. Yachidamo, Katsura, Onara, Saiva-giirumi, Tochi, Kununi, Nire, Kirri, Kiwada, Harikiri, Enjii^ ffakoyanagi, Boro, Bunoki, Kashiwa, Sakura, Butia and Kaede in the Broad-Leafed class. ' J / r — 18 — Hinoki, Fir (Chamaecyparis obtusa, S. et Z.) : — llie timber is soft, close-grained, strong and tough and has a peculiar scent. Hanks first among Japanese timber trees, being used for building purposes, and as an ornamental wood and in engineering work and naval architecture; also in bridgework. Grows in the southern half of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. In the provinces of Kii, Yamato, Musashi, Totomi, and Tajima, we find extensive forests of this tree. The natural Hinoki forest in Kiso is one of the three best forests in Japan. The natural forests in the Koya mountains in Kii are noted for producing big Hinoki tree. The home of this tree is in the central portion of Honshu, in regions from 550 to 1,400 metres above the sea level, but where the atmosphere contains a suitable proportion of moisture, it is found in well-formed woods, either pure or mixed, in both higher or lower districts. ^^ Hiha (Thujopsis dolabrata, S. et Z.) .-—This tree together with i/moH, Sawara, Nezuko and Koyamaki formed the so-called Gohoku or *' Five Trees " under the old regime and enjoyed careful protection at the hands of the feudal authorities. Mostly regenerated naturally; rarely planted. The Aomori districts in the north are noted for having pure woods of Hiba. The State forests in the Tsugaru and the Nambu peninsula are nearly pure woods of Hiha with a slight intermixture of Buna. There are extensive forests of Hiha mixed with other coniferous trees, such as Hirneko-matsu and Sawara, in the mountains on the northern frontier of Rikuchu, in Goyosan in Rikuzen and in the mountains in the Tone districts, Kozuke. The wood grows slowly and the year-rings are extremely narrow. The timber is compact and strong ; therefore used for building and engine- ering purpose. It has lately come to be in great demand for use as railway sleepers, its durability being peerless. Suf/i (Cryptonieria japonica, Don.) ; — Very widely distribut- ed, being second only to ** Jied pines " among the conifers in this respect. This tree wants light, grows well in soils having a fiuitalile amount of moisture, is capable of speedy and considerable growth, some specimens being found of sucli huge dimensions as 2 metres in diameter and 40 metres high. In suitable soils — 19 — and atmosphere this tree forms woods throughout Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu and even in the southern provinces of Hokkaido. Splendid specimens of natural pure woods of Siigi are found in the Nagakizawa State forests in Akita, while specimens of artificial forests are seen in the private forests in the Yoshino districts in the province of Yamato. The natural forests in Yakujima in Kyushu are celebrated for producing timbers having very fine and pretty grains known as Uzura-moku, partridge grains. The wood is light yellow with a shade of red ; used very much like Hinoki for building and ornamental purposes and in the manufacture of tools and utensils. Saivara (Chamecyparis pisifera, S. ct Z.) ; Nezuho (Thuya japonica, Maxim.) : Koya-Maki (Sciadopytis verticillata, S. et Z.) ; — Naturally these trees are always found in mixed woods, and never as pure woods. In Kiso and in the Koya mountains there are natural woods of these trees mixed with Hinoki and other coniferous species. They are also found in large groups in the provinces of Yamato, Bungo, Satsuma, Omi, Iwashiro, Shimotsuke and Uzen, 900 metres to 1,800 metres above the sea-level. The timber oi Saivara and Nezuko is of pretty ap- pearance, but being soft, light and easy to split is mostly used as boards and planks by joiners and carpenters. The Koya-maki grows extremely slowly, its timber is close-grained and contain- ing some resinous substances is very durable in water. It is therefore valued for making water-pails and for use in earth- work engineering. Momi (Abias firma, S. et Z.) : — Quite widely distributed, being always found in the primitive mountain forests in the southern provinces of Honshu, Kyushu and Shikoku. Is a shade-bearing species. After its middle age it grows very fast and in well-adopted soil forms perfect trunk. The timber is light and coarse and undergoes much expansion and contraction, therefore inferior to the timber of other conifers. Owing to the length of its fibres and the possibility of cleaning them by bleaching, it is used almost exclusively as paper pulps. There being a great demand for the pulps the tree may gradually become extinct unless steps are taken for its artificial regenera- — 20 — tion. The boxes and cases exported to foreign countries from Japan are mostly made of this wood. Tsuga (Tsuga sieboldii, Carr.) ; — In distribution similar to Momi and mostly found in woods mixed with Momi. Growth very slow; the timber being of compact structure is highly appreciated for ornamental purpose. Used like Momi as material for paper and box making. Himeko-matsu (Pinus parviflora, S. et Z.) : — Is found in woods in regions between places elevated 1,600 metres above the sea on the Kotsuke-Echigo boundary-line and the moun- tain ranges of Iwashiro. Nearly pure woods are seen in the provinces of Toshima and Shiribeshi, Hokkaido. Goyo-matsu (Pinus pentaphylla, Mayr.) and Chosen-matsu (Pinus Koreinsis, S. et Z.) are found overlapping the Tem- perate regions and the Arctic. Barely met with in the mountains in the central and northern sections of Honshu. The Goyo-matsu is found in the form of a quasi-pure forest in the province of Tokachi, Hokkaido. Bm^a-momi (Picea polita, Carr.) and Ira-momi (Picea bicolos, Mayr.) are very limited in distribution being only found to any great extent on the sides of Mount Fuji, at the height of over 2,000 metres above the sea-level. Generally they are found in solitary clusters on the high mountains. As they possess the useful characteristic of making reasonable growth even in poor and shaded land, they have drawn the attention of the Govern- ment authorities as being probably suited for making protection forests intended to preserve the soil. The growth is very slow and the timber being very soft, is inferior to that of other coniferous species for ordinary purposes but is suited for making ceilings and also water- free articles of furniture. Kara-matsu (Larix leptolepis, Gord.). — Found in natural woods at Mts. Fuji and Asama and the Azumi districts in the province of Shinano. Grows wild in the mountains of Nikko ; nowhere elso found in natural woods. It is a decidedly light-demanding species and thrives in dry soils of volcanic origin. The timber is tolerably hard and durable and valued for house and ship-l)uilding purposes, as telegraph poles, in civil engine- — 21 — ering work and for other uses. The tree grows fast and is free from ordinary dangers incidental to sylviculture. Thrives well in any soil however poor, hence it is growing in popularity in Honshu and Hokkaido. The broad-leafed trees of the Temperate regions are very numerous and occupy more than one half the area under forest. They are found everywhere in great luxuriance, but single species are rarely seen in the form of a strictly pure forest, although Konara, Kashiiva, Oiiara, Kaba, Doro-no-ki, Han-no-ki, Katsura and Buna are widely distributed throughout Honshu and in the southern half of Hokkaido in almost unmixed woods. All the other species grow in irregular intermixture with other broad-leafed or needle-leafed trees, sheltering and protecting each other so as to preserve the original sylvan features. Below are given chief species of sylvicultural importance ; Keyaki (Zelkowa Keaki, Sieb.). — No other broad-leafed species is adopted to so many ways of utilization and so highly valued as Keyaki. This species is found everywhere in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu, but rarely in pure woods. It grows to enormous dimensions in woods intermixed with shade-bearing species of the broad-leafed family. Loves calcareous soils and the south-eastern sides of mountains, where, when the soil is suitable, it attains perfect growth. Found wild below 1,600 metres in Shikoku and Kyushu and under 750 metres in the northern section of Honshu. Kiso, Izu, Totomi, Kii, Hyuga, Yamato, Ise and Ou (the north-eastern districts of the Main Island) are especiall noted for producing big Keyaki trees. Requiring a great many years for its full gro\Al;h, it is unsuited for planting by private sylviculturists with small capital. The Government is, however, making their best endeavors to preserve and increase the areas under this species. The timber is very strong, hard, and lustrous ; highly valued for building and ornamental purpose ; also in naval architecture. Keyaki timber which has Jorin (ring-like), Czum, (partridge feather), Tama (gem) or Botan (peony) grain is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Keyaki wood is a favorite material for sculptors, being hard and easy to work. -^ 22"-. Buna (Fagus sylvatica, var. Sieb., Maxim.) — Occupies the largest space next to Akamatsu. Found in the hills and moun- tains in the northern section of Honshu, in the elevated districts in the southern section of Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu ; also in many provinces of Hokkaido. Mostly found mixed with Onara, Katsura, Shioji, Itaya-Kayede and other trees, but in Aomori, Iwate, Echigo and Yamagata pure woods of vast dimensions are seen in the mountains over 300 metres above the sea. As a firewood and charcoal producer, this is one of the most important speces. The timber is little used for building purjioses. The Kosaka, Ani and other mines have large Buna forests for getting supplies of fuel. This tree grows well in the shade and having the characteristic of growing even when extremely old, it sometimes attains an enormous size. The Ainos in Old Japan are said to have made log-boats of this tree. Yackidamo (Fraxinus mandshurica, Rupr.) and Katsura (Cercidiphyllum japonicum, S. et Z.,). — The only broad-leafed species affording building timbers. Also used for ornamental purposes. Very widely distributed, found in all parts of Hokkaido and in the mountain valleys in the northern section of Honshu. Thrives best in level ground ; excellent pure woods of Katsura are seen in the province of Iburi. The timber is soft and compact and possesses elastic powers of a durable character. Hence extensively used of late as railway sleepers ; it is chiefly such sleepers that are exported to North China. Inu-Enju TCladrastis amurensis, var. floribunda, Maxim.): — Found in the northern section of Honshu and in South Hokkaido mixed with other broad-leafed species. The timber is very pretty and is used for making valuable articles of furniture. Exported to China and Korea as railway sleepers. Kurumi (Juglans sieboldiana, Maxim.): — Grows in rich mountain valleys and on low lands in the central and northern sections of Honshu. On the plains of Ishikari and Tokachi in Hokkaido, it is found in woods mixed with Yackidamo, Katsura, Nire and other trees. The timber is in demand for making railway carriages 'and for highly ornamental purposes^ ttiid also for rifle-stocks. — 23 — Harikiri (Acanthopanox ricinifolium, S. et Z.): — Grows in wet soils in Shimozuke, Iwashiro and Iwate ; and everywhere in Hokkaido. In rich soil attains considerable dimensions. The timber is somewhat hard and lustrous with well defined grain and whitish in color. Prized for ornamental purposes and for making articles of household furniture. In great demand as railways sleepers like Yachidamo and Katsura. Kashiiva (Quercus dentata, Thumb.) and Onara (Quer- cus crispula, Bl.) : — Found in wet places between the mountains in the Nasu and Ou districts in Honshu and everywhere on the plains of Hokkaido. In Honshu rarely found in pure woods, always growing mixed with other broad-leaf species, but in some parts of Hokkaido, there are extensive pure woods of these trees The timber of Onara is widely used as sleepers and is one of best producers of firewood and charcoal. Kashiwa contains tannin in its bark and is used in curing skins. Other- 'vise it is not used, except as firewood. Hako-yanagi (Populus tremula L. var. villosa, INfesm.) and **Doronoki" (Populus balsaraifera, L. var. suaveolenus, Loud) : The two species are most valuable wood in Japan for making match-sticks. The former grows all over Shikoku, Kyushu, Honshu, and as far north as Hokkaido, while the latter thrives well in the north-eastern districts of Honshu and HokkaidS. They grow easily in sandy wet soil, are found forming uniform forests of perfect sylvicultural aspect in many parts of Hokkaido. The trees are fond of light and under favorable condition "flieir growth is very rapid, and after 25 years from germination they easily attain the height of jS metres. Reproduced by seeds or layer or by dividing the roots. They are being planted extensively in private forests. Kuri (Castenea vulgaris, var. Japonica, D.C.) : — The extent of the growth of this species is exceedingly wide. In Kyushu and Shikoku and the western parts of Honshu the tree imparts a special aspect to the forests growing on the sides of high hills or on hillocks. In places north to the middle section of Honshu, it grows well on the plains and produces valuable timber. However the specie rarely forms any extensive pure — 24 — forest of its own, and generally mixed Bima, Hiha, Kiwada, Katsura, Kayede Sawakurumi, etc. In the Kobinata State forest found in Tone district, Kozuke, and in Hiraga district, Ugo, it is found forming pure forests of no small extent. The timber is extremely hard, can stand wet, and on the whole lasts long, is therefore preferred for railway sleepers to any other tree growing in Japan. The sleepers used in the Government Tokaido railroad and in the Hankaku railroad are made from the timber of this tree. Sakura (Prunus pseudo-cerasus, Lindl. var. spontanea Maxim), Kaede (Acer palmatum Thurab. var. Mono Max.), Honoki (Magnolia hypoleuca, S. et Z.) : — These are not trees of any great sylvicultural importance, and very rarely do they form pure forests of their own, growing mostly, as they do, amidst conifers or broad-leaf trees. However they are of importance for certain special purpose, and as the supply is hardly sufficient to meet demand, their price is comparatively high. In view of this fact, both in State forests and private forests, they are being planted side by side with trees of other sorts, Tochi (^sculus turbinata, Bl.), Nire (Ulmus campestris, var. Leavis, Planch), Hannoki (Alnus japonica, S. et Z.), Toneriko (Fraxinus Bungeana, DC), Saikachi (Gleditchia japonica, Miq.), Yanagi (Salix Species) are deciduous broad-leafed trees not particularly possessing any great sylvicultural value. They are grown in this zone for the purpose of giving protection to primary trees or for maintaining the fertility of forest- land. Frigid Forests.— Forests in the Frigid zone occupy in the northern half of Hokkaido and the Kuriles those places where the average yeiuly temperature does not exceed 6°. In regard to altitude distribution, the zone comprises in Formosa those places that are not less than 3,500 metres from the sea-level, and in the middle section of Honshu all places 1,800 metres above sea level. Timber-trees in Frigid Forests.— Timber-trees growing in this region are naturally not so numerous as in those in warmer regions. Indeed as the forests of this zone, except those in Hokkaido, are located in high altitudes, with pcor soil, and subjected to strong — 25 — ifvin Is, the trees are generally too stunted in growth to be of any value. In Hokkaido, however, conifers grow luxuriantly and many primitive forests not yet explored are found. The principal trees in these forests are Todo-matsu (Abies Sachaliensis, Mast.) and Yezo-matsu (Picea ajanensis, Fisch.). Starting from altitudes measuring 450 metres in the southern parts of the island, these trees are found growing luxuriantly in the mountains of Ishikari, Teshio, Tokachi, Nemuro, and Kitami, and lastly in the island of Kunajiri. The Imperial forests at Tarunai, Uryu, Kushiro, and the State forests at Otoneton, Shari and Kunajiri practically consist of extensive pure forests of these trees, presenting a highly regular aspect. The timber of Todo-matsu is in large demand for architectural and earth-works, and is indeed most valuable of all the timbers produced in Hokkaido. The wood is, however, coarse-grained, and light and is liable to bend when exposed alternately to dryness and humidity. Rather close-grained and resinous, the wood is in great demand for architectural work. Akaezo-matsu (Picea Glehni, Mast.). — Though valuable as timber next to the two foregoing species, this tree rarely forms a pure forest, is in greater demand than the other two, and commands a high price. The wood is close-grained and suited for architectural work. In Etrup and Shikotan of the Kuriles, a species of larch, scientifically termed Larix dahurica, var. japonica. Max. is found growing, and exposed to inclement climate forms a pure forest of good aspect. The wood is reddish, hard, and well stands wet, and is therefore used in shipbuilding, earthwork and furniture- making. Shira-kaba (Betula alba, L. var. vulgaris, DC), Yavia-han- noki (Alnus incana, Willd. var. glauca, Ait.), Nanakamado (Pirus aucuparia, Gaeten. var. japonica. Max.) are some of the decidu- ous broad-leafed trees that are found in this zone either as pure forests or scattered among other trees. They are, however, of small sylvicultural value, and are generally used as firewood by miners or fishermen residing in the vicinity. — 26 — There are many other trees growing in the respective zones, but the principal species are generally confined to those above described^ As found in natural growth, they either form pure forests or are mixed with other trees. In general conifers occupy in the southern districts elevated places, while forests on the level mostly consist of broad-leafed trees. In the northern districts conifers cover mountain slopes, while on their top and foot broad-leafed trees predominate. Ratio 'OF different kinds of Wooded- areas. — On the whole the different classes of forests exist in the following proportions in the wooded areas of Japan : — Conifer Forests Broad-Leafed P'orests Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests ... Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc 1 otai ••• ««• ••• ..• «.. 2\% 9% loo Bamboo areas, though forming a feature in our forest system and sufficiently profitable in exploitation, are still extremely limited in extent ; nor do they show any sign of enlargement in a near future. A description of them has, therefore, been omitted here. The growing extension of Aka-matsu forests recently in Honshu, Shikoku and Kyushu tended to raise the relative ratio of conifer forests to broad-leafed forests, and this tendency is further accele- rated by the greater demand, in consequence of the development of industry and business, for such conifers as Sugi, Hinok'i, and Karamatw. which are being planted extensively. In the State forests the relative proportion of the different kinds of forests stands as follows : — Conifer Forests Broad- Leaffd Forests Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests ... Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc Total 11% 49% 12% lOO The forest-areas devoted to conifers will attain before long the proper ratio to which they are entitled from increasing demand upon them. — 27 — In the Imperial forests, owing to the greater attention paid to forest aspect, the relative proportion is more satisfactory, as : — Conifer Forests Broad-Leafed Forests Conifer and Broad-Leafed Forests Thinly-Stocked or Blank Areas, etc Total loo Both in the State forests or Imperial forests the principal trees are, in conifers, Aka-matsu, Tsiiga, Todo-matsu, Sugi, Hinoki, Momi, etc. ; while, in broad-leafed trees Buna, different varieties of Nara and Kashiy Kaba, Kuri, etc. constitute principal species. III. ADJUSTMENT OF THE FORESTS. General Remarks, — The work of forest adjustment was attended to by the Court as early as the Konin era (the beginning of the 9th century), when the Emperor of the day issued a proclamation restriot- ing the undue felling of trees and ordering in general the due protection of forests. From about that time till the advent of the Tokugawa Regency, the sylvicultural business fared no better than other industrial affairs, that is, it suffered much from neglect and devastation. With the establishment of the Tokugawa regime, and after about three centuries of this iron administration something like a regular system for protection of forests had been evolved. Different systems prevailed, indeed, in different daimyiates but they all had this feature in common, that is to say they originated from necessity of military defense. Stern rules characteristic of a military despotism were therefore enforced for the protection of the forests. It is true that even then forests were divided into utilization forests and pro- tection forests, but even in the case of the former more or less severe restrictions were always enforced. The existence of protection forests was* extraordinary both in kind and extent. These comprised forests at the headwaters of rivers, the forests planted to prevent landslips, the forests planted to protect against damage from heavy snowfalls, the forests intended to give shelter to the — 28 — ^vater and to invite the collection of fish in it, and forests of other descriptions. For the protection of special kinds of trees the rules enforced were extremely strict. The prohibition trees differed according to places. Hiha tree was protected in Aomori, " Prohibiti:n Svgi in Akita, while Kiso had " five prohibition trees " Trees.' Kii " six/' Awa "seven" and Kumamoto ** three." This prohibitive treatment gave rise to the development of the work of utilization and adjustment, and by keeping careful forest records and by adopting a conscientious system of rotation each daimyiate made it a point to secure the constant supply (f valuable kinds of timber within its own borders. AVhatever advantages Japan now enjoys in the matter of forests, she must be said to owe to this jealous guard kept over her forests of old by -the feudal pinces. The protection of the forests having been maintained by despotic rules as was the case in France before the Revolution, — rules which did not originate in any regular economic principles, The Eestoratioa the withdrawal of those rules on the Restoration was and the consequence. The Meiji Government lost no time, Deforestation, however, in taking measures calculated to check this alarming state of affairs. Those measures were, however, not quite calculated to cope with the trouble, and at best could but partially remove it. One of the most serious in- conveniences that confronted the Forest authorities was the absence of definite boundaries between one State forest and another or be- tween a State forest and a private forest, so that while in the former case the accurate determination of forest areas was not possible, in the latter case the State frequently claimed forests belonging to the other owners. Again illicit felling or felling due to mistake frequently took place, thereby complicating indescribably the work of proper control. It was primarily with the object of removing this fruitful source of trouble and of thoroughly adjusting the boundaries, that the authorities started in 1890 the first regular programme of treatment. First Ae^tustment Programme. — Tliis programme is to be completed in 15 years ending 1904. To meet the expense necessary for carrying it out the Government decided to disburse, besides — 29 — regular expense, a sum of 855,851 yen on account of extraordinary ex- pense. The programme aims in accomplishing the following object : — 1. To inquire into the condition of those State forests and plains (measuring altogether 6,600,000 c/w) irregularly scattered over the country, to carefully classify them into those that should with benefit be maintained as State property and those that should be transferred to private property ; also to clearly define the jurisdiction limit of supervising offices by determining the relative convenience of control and relative economic advantages. 2. To clearly define the boundary between State forests and to provide against illicit felling and felling by mistake. 3. To ascertain the exact area of those State forests of greatest economic importance measuring 1,380,000 cho and to pre- pare accurate forest maps. From its very nature the work embodied in the foregoing clauses requires a long space of time, but at the same time the elaboration of a definite sylvicultural system demands the speedy completion of the work. It was a very judicious measure, therefore, on the part of the authorities that the programme was adopted as a continuation work so as to preclude it from being altered by any new arrangement that might be made in future. The working of this programme, which is to be completed this fiscal year, has been highly satisfactory and has imparted for the first time a firm basis of operation to Government forestry policy. The sale of State forests and plains, the opening up of some of them to exploitation by private individuals either by being brought under cultivation or converted into pastures, the elaboration of a high rotation system for other kinds of forest-land — all these and many other things are the fruit of this work of the first programme, which may therefore be said to have inaugurated a new era in the economy of State forests in this country. Second Adjustment Programme. — The work started by that programme has been continued by the so-called second programme which came into operation in 1898 to extend till 19i|3, a Special Forest Account Fund being created foi- the purpose. The work aimed at in this new programme is one of the highest importance. — 30 -^ being nothing less than the adjustment of the irregular condition of State forests, the expansion of the limit of exploitation, the increase of fertility of forest-land, in short the thorough re-adjustment from the very basis of the economic system of State forests. Started in a concreate form the work involved in this programme consists in determining the forests and plains that may no longer be kept as State property, in the final survey of State forests and plains which should be kept as such, and in the elaboration of . plan for working such forests and plains, planting open spaces, undertaking engineering works relating to forests, purchasing such forests as are required, and in short all those matters necessary for determining the system of ex- ploiting State forests and plains. -^ The fund devoted for completing this programme was fixed at 23,025,053 yen. The fact that the programme involved such a big outlay at first deterred the authorities from adopting it, but the difficulty was solved by setting it apart as a special account with the revenue supplied by the proceeds of the sale of forests and plains which may no longer be kept as State property. The measure embodying this programme obtained the approval of the Imperial Diet and was finally issued as law in 1898. The completion of this important programme mainly depending on the sale of unimportant State forests and plains, it is evident that the authorities must carefully regulate this sale so that all the different undertakings in the programme may be regularly carried out according to the prescribed plan of operation. • Financial Prospect of the Adjustment. — The result of the programme will revolutionize the economy of the State forests. Not to speak of an addition of 50,983 yen to the Revenue on account of the Land Tux accruing from the forests and phiins transferred to private ownership, the adjustment effected will con- i?idenil)ly diminisli the managing expenses and will improve the efficiency of the work of control. The revenue from the increased felling is especially important, it being estimated that after 1910 the revenue will be four times what it is now. This means an addition of over 3,310,000 yen to the State Kevenue. After the lapse of one hundred years, by which time the renovated forests, even supposing that the market price will remain as low as it in — 31 — now, will have grown to QQ million yen a year, about a quarter of the total amount of Revenue to-day. That this forecast is by no means a sanguine one is proved by the experience of the four years that have elapsed since the commencement of the programme. Investigation and adjustment of State Forests. — The investigation Avas carried out from 1890 to 1894 into the existing condition of State forests in Shikoku, Kyushu and Honshu where there are 719,473 such forests, with the object of selecting those forests which should be kept as State property and those which may with advantage be sold to private individuals. Mode of First Adjustment plan. — The selection is made by keeping the following points in view : — 1. Those which exist in a lot of over 50 cho or in different lots found within the limit of one town or village or within the distance of not more than 2 ri from each other, and which can permanently carry out independent syl- vicultural work. 2. Those which exist in a lot of less than 50 cho but which can without any trouble be managed in consequence of the existence in the same district or in a neighboring district of a State forest or forests measuring over thou- sands or hundreds of cho. 3. Those which, though existing in a lot of less than 10 cho or are economically unimportant, are useful for con- structing forest-roads, for the transport of wood or for storing wood, building official residences of foresters or for other matters connected with State forests. The forests coming under any of the foregoing conditions were to be reserved as State property, and the others not satis- fying them to be disposed of Also forests or plains necessary to the farmers living in the neighborhood for getting fodder or grass for manure were to be transferred to private ownership, provided no particular necessity existed for keeping them as State property. The result of investigation was that of the State forests and plains measuring altogether 8,095,916 cho, 7,354,343 cho were judged fit to be retained as State property and the remaining 741,573 aha unlit for that purpose. — 32 — The proceeds obtained by disposing of those unimportant forests and plains are to be used as funds for carrying out the second forestry programme, mentioned above, that is to say, the forest exploitation as work of special account. Second Adjustment Plan. — However the selection made was afterward judged to be not entirely satisfactory ; it was found in fact to be satisfactory both in respect of omission and of commission, w^hile with the progress of the times, it became necessary to take into a greater considerations than before the question of the public peace and order. It was decided in 1899 to make thorough second' investigations based on advanced principles of forest exploitation. The rules to guide the investigation were drawn up and the work was started afresh in that year. The disposal of unimportant forests and plains determined by the second investigation is to be completed in six years from 1899, and during the three years from that year to 1901 inclusive about 51,756 cho in 16,113 lots were sold,, and a sum of 5,199,198 yen was realized by that transaction. Demarkation of boundaries and measurement of State Forests and Plains. — The exact measurement of forests and accurate forest-maps being absolutely indispensable for conducting scientiffic treatment of forests, the Government issued in 1884 Notes relating to Boundaries of State forests, and caused the local offices to undertake the demarkation of the boundaries and the measure- * ments of the forests. The formulse set forth in the Notes were v i \^ too simple to render the result of the work to be of any great use. J^ They were repeatedly improved, the last in 1899, and the system -^ ^ elaborated in the latter year is now in force. The 8Ysti:m now in force. — That system divides the work into three divisions, viz., demarkation of boundaries, triangular surveying as applied to forests, and contour surveying. On the completion of the work, foundation maps of working plan are to be drawn on a scale of 1/5000. The final survey carried out according to the foregoing system reaches] in extent to 29,289 kilometres and 761,349 cho 3 tan 5.22 fse in measurement^ There remain 2,850 kilometres for which the work of (Contour surveying has been accomplished but whose mea- surement still remains to be completed. 1 1 — 33 -^ Elaboration of the Working Plan. — The treatment of forests without any definite plan being inconsistent with the interests of forest economy in 1890 a provisional working plan was there- fore drawn up intended to provide some directions with regard to felling. But with the progress of the first adjustment programme it was possible to apply a more scientific and permanent plan, at least in the case of these forests for which the work of adjustment had been completed. The forests qualified to be dealt with under this permanent plan were those in Ehime, Fukuoka, Kagoshima, Hiro- shima, Osaka, Ishikawa, Akita, and a few others. The notes drawn up for forming the plan were to this effect : — 1. That the system of sylviculture should be maintained in as perfect a condition as possible and that the utmost quantity of timber possible should at the same time be obtained. 2. That a proper care should be exercised in planting and felling, and provisions should be made against damage of wind and fire and insects. 3. That reserves should be provided to counteract the diminu- tion of the crop incidental to such damage. In the elaboration of the plan a minor forestry office was regard- ed as a unit of economy, and the determination of a yearly cutting volume was based on the area to be cleared and the crop to be obtained. With the progress of the work of adjustment and the greater light bestowed, in consequence, on the condition of the fi)rests, it was possible, especially as a result of the development of facilities of communication, to draw up a plan of a more perfect description. In 1899 and again in 1901 the necessary amendment was effected in the principle of the working plan. The amendment was chieffy intended to adopt the plan . as well as possible to the conditions of a district and of a forest. It was also decided that the improvement of the irregular aspect of the forests should be made in a limited space of time. In short, the plan was made to cover all mattei-s relating to the utilization of timber and the renovation and re- generation of forests, and was intended to procure the maximum income and produce crops best calculated to satisfy the demand on the market. — 34 — The permanent working plan as at first elaborated was first put into operation in 1893 and 58,916 clw 5 tan 9 se was adjusted till 1899, while from the time of the carrying in effect of the second adjustment programme to the end of 1901 the forests measuring 30,945 cho 1\ tan received similar treatment, making altogether 89,862 cho Zh tan. Adjustment of the Imperial Forests. — The Imperial forests having been originally transferred from State forests, the conditions requiring adjustment and the elaboration of working plan were practically identical with those of the State forests. As in the case of State forests, therefore, the work of selecting those forests to be retained and those to be disposed of was started in 1892 and completed in 1898 while work of drawing up per- manent working plan was commenced in the latter year. The final survey was carried during the nine years ended 1901 for forests extending in aggregate length to 7,076 kilou etres and measuring altogether 332,482 clw 2.21 se. The working plan for 147,205 cho in the forests at Fuji, Kiso, Amaki, and Watarae has been completed. lY. EXPLOITATION AND TREATMENT OF THE FORESTS. Sylvicultural Treatment and Ownership. — The work- ing plan and economy of forests differ according as they are owned by private individuals, by the State or by the Im- perial Household, for it is naturally expected that, in the forests belonging to the State or to the Imperial Household, the interests of the public and of the nation sliould be consulted more than in private forests. Consequently the managers of the State forests do not look for speedy returns. In view of this consideration the State and Household forests have elaborated a high forest system and the felling of trees is regulated according to this special system. Forests also present a different aj^pearance according as they belong to the State, to the Imperial Housoiiold or to private in- (livirliial.s. Those l)clonging to the former two are generally re- — 35 — newed as a result of natural growth and are therefore less uni- form in composition than those owned by people whose forests re- ceive greater care, the object being to make them yield returns more quickly. The woods at Tokaido, already mentioned and those at Muro and Kii, are noteworthy in this respect, the profit deriv- ed from them being even larger than the rate in Saxony, where forestry is carried on to greater perfection than anywhere else throughout the world. On the other hand, Rotation in State affected by this consideration of obtaining quicker and Imperial returns, privately owned forests do not generally Forests. admit of high forest treatment. The State or Household forests are therefore obliged to supply that in which the other forests are deficient and to produce timber- trees and to properly regulate the cutting period. This period is generally as follows for valuable timber-trees : — Sugi ... Hinoki ... Hit a Aka-matsti Kara-niatsu Kuro-matsu Kcyaki ... Kusu . . . ••• ••• ••• ••• ••• .•• ••• ••• years. 80 — 120 100—150 100 — 150 40 — 100 80 — 100 80 — 100 150 — 200 150—200 As the economy of ordinary forests does not admit of sucli high rotation, some of them adopt the metiiuni Rotation in Pri- rotation system, such as coppice-with-standani vate Forests. systems, and while utilizing the underwood in a comparatively short space of time they leave the over-wood for utilization after it has reached the period of proper maturity. Sometimes the two-storied high forest system is adopted, and by planting light-demanding trees of quicker growth double rotation system is applied. FoiiEST Formations. — In regard to the selection of fores>try formation^, considerable care is required, for while naturally re- generated forests require reorganization on account of their irregular aspect a pure forest formation is likely to cause trouble in Japan — m -^ from wind or snow and also on account of the risks from injurious^ insects. The result is that the planting, as it is carried on now- a-days, aims at growing two or three different species made to occupy different compartments or groups or suitably mixed together. Then again the sylvicultural system as adopted in State forests necessarily differs from that in privately-owned forests, and varies also according to locality. For instance, on mountain slopes clear cutting methods, especially of any wide area, may be inadvisable and selection cutting and shelter-wood system have to be adopted. This selection cutting being, however, inconvenient, the Govern- ment is determined to adopt, as far as circumstances permit, the clear cutting method and to entirely renovate sylvicultural for- mation. The coppice-with-standard System is adopted for a special sort of forestry management, especially for small fire-wood areas worked by private individuals who are aiming at the largest possible returns at within shortest possible periods. This system is of course out of place for a forest of any extensive area. Bamboo plantations constitute peculiar feature of our sylvicul- ture, and is likely to prove highly profitable owing to the grow- ing demand for bamtboos. One serious drawback in the manage- ment of bamboo groves is the fact that land suited for raising any large bamboo forest is not to be found in Japan, while the more valuable varieties of this species can only be grown in certain limited parts of the country. Coppice woods are grown to supply firewood, the demand for which is unusually large in Japan. They are generally left to renew themselves, especially when the area is extensive ; but those situated in the vicinity of cities and towns are artificially tended, the species chosen for this purpose being generally Kunugi and Konara. Tlie treatment of protection forest consists of selection cutting, the style of which must differ according to Selection Cutting in the character of the forest and to local condi- Prolection Forests. tions. The rotation should be regulated accord- ing to the following standards : — — 37 — Cop ice Woods Bamboo Woods • Coppice-with-Standards Timber Forests ... Not less than lo years. ... Not less than 3 years. j-Overwood not less than 30 years, under- \ wood not less than 10 years. ... Not less than 30 years. Treatment op State Forests. — The total area of the forests under regular treatment is being ascertained at present by the Oovernment. At present the data for State forests alone are available, these roughly standing as follows : — Method of treatment. Clear Cutting Timber-Forests •.. Shelter- Wood Timber-Forests ... Selection Cutting Timber-Forests Coppice ... ... Coppice-with-Standard and Bamboo Thinly Stocked Areas, Bare Areas, etc, Total per cent. . 32 6 . 24 . 17 10 II . 100 It will be seen from the above that the timber-forests treatment occupies about 62 per cent, of the whole areas of State forests. The principal growing stock cons-ists of Buna (beech) 30 per cent., Akamatsu 20 per cent., Siigi 12 per cent., HinoH 7 per cent., Kai833 Subsidiary-Roads 28,080 26,708 Total 72,220 82,541 Besides the above, the tracks laid with 12 pound-rails in the Imperial forests at Kiso measure 8,212 metres, the expense required being 14,680 yen. In the colder districts, such as Hokkaido or the north-eastern part of Honshu, the wood is largely carried over hardened snow in. winter at a very small expense. River Transport of Timbers. — The transport of timber by rivers has been carried on extensively from former days, the conveyance of Kiso wood on the river Kiso, of Nagakizawa wood on the river Noshiro, and of Kitayama wood on the Sliingu being some of the important cases of the regular river-transport of timber. However, in order to make rivers serve still more efficiently this purpose, all the obstacles in their course should be removed, the river-banks should — 53 ^ Tdc made strengthened, while in the lower course where a wood-depot is to be formed damming- work should be constructed. From 1899 to 1901 the obstacles were removed over 32,800 metres of river-beds and the stones thus taken out of the bottom covered 49,176 cubic tsiibo. YI. WOOD PRODUCE. General Remarks. — Data on forestry yield being unavailable in the case of privately-owned forests, we must content ourselves in this section with giving the data in connection with the State forests measuring about 7,500,000 cho and the Imperial forests measuring about 2 millions. It is hardly necessary to state that the yield from the forests Taries considerably according to position and local conditions, and that while the harvest of convertible timber depends upon the specie s of the trees and their growth, the amount of the financial yield depends upon the locale of the growing stock, the relative facilities of transport, and the demands on the market. Harvest of Convertible Timbers. — The harvest of State forests continues to increase with the progress of the work of manage- ment, and, compared with what it was 10 years ago, the yield at present shows an increase of about 35 per cent, as stated in the following table : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 190 1. Shaktijinie. Shakujiinc. ^hakiijinie. Shaktt/irnc. Timber 984,464 1,107,941 1,010,621 1,707,813 Firewood ... 3,361,566 3.544,068 3,609,036 4,619,657 4,158,186 Total ... 4.346,030 4,652,009 5,865,999 Forest Area (c/io)... ... 7,541,633 7,715,793 7,773,155 7,586,201 Yield per c/w 0.58 0.58 0.59 0.77 Note :— In the foregoing figures the harvest of root, stump-wood, and faggots is ex- cluded, while fractions of a shakujimc are also omitted. A shakujime measHres 12 cubic shaku and corresponds to about a third of i cubic metre. This remark applies to all the subsequent tables of a similar description. The increase of the harvest has been brought about by a longer thining made possible by the improved method of management and by the extension of the utilization area which was in turn due to -- 54 — development of means of transportation. Indeed the utilization area of State forests increased from about 18 per cent, in 1892 of the whole area to about 21 per cent, in 1901. In other words, the rate of utilization area incrpa^ed during the period in question by 17 per cent, as against 35 per cent, of the volume of the timber- harvest. ■* The harvest, according to the foregoing table, increased during the specified period from 0.58 shakii-jme per cho to 0.78 ; and these compared with the respective utilization areas correspond to 3.2 to 3.7 The volume of the harvest as compared with the volume of the growing-stock in the State forests is extremely small, and indeed does not reach even one half of what it should be. The reason of this abnormal yield must be sought in the fact that in most of the forests situated in hilly districts the presence of miscellaneous trees is seriously affecting the growth of timber-trees, while in most of the forests the growing-stock has not yet attained the normal "age- classes." Further, the Government is disposed to minimize, till the management programme is completed, the volume of the yearly fellings, while the imperfect means of transport, absolutely considered, very much affect the extent of the utilization area. Financial yield. — The State-forests, hampered as they are from various inconvenient conditions, are placed in a highly dis- advantageous situation, so far as the financial side of yeild is con- cerned. This point is significantly shown in the following figures showing the yield during the 10 years ending 1901 : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901 yen. veji. reft. yen. Timbers 342,556 555,906 767,842 1,369,171 Firewood 213,709 299449 372,515 486,141 Root, Stump - wood, \ Fagots, etc j 66,324 19,348 28,708 37,880 Minor Produce 120,229 73,755 142,904 158,655 Rent 23,618 25,361 46,323 73,689 Sundries 44,(>23 24,801 93,374 50,986 Total 811,059 998,620 1,451,666 2,176,522 Total Area (c/io) 7.541.633 7,715,793 7773,155 7,581,201 Yield per c/io 0.108 0.129 0.187 0.288 Nofc : — Tn the above table, fractions of a yc/i arc omiiitd, c'xrc])t in tlic figures re- presenting the yield ()cr r/zo. — 55 — Though absolutely considered, the yield of only 0.288 yen per cho is exceedingly small, still it must be regarded 'vith satisfaction on account of the relative progres-i that it indicates. ' The record for 1892 as compared with that of 1893 shows an incl^ase of 19 per cent., advanced to 73 per cent, in the next three years, and to 260 per cent, in the subsequent three years. Again, when compared with the utilization area only, instead of the whole area, the yield per cho increased during the ten years from 0.647 yen to 1.386 yen. This creditable progress, relatively speaking, has been brought about not merely by an increase in the volume of the harvest, but principally by the recent growing demand for timber with the con- sequent rise of the market price, and by the diminution of transport expenses owing to the greater facilities offered by the improved means of communication. Above all the receipt from timbers has been strikingly increased, these timbers being mostly the timber of conifers such as Sugiy Hinoki, Hiba, Momiy Akamatsu, etc. Poles produced by thining were till ten years ago practically destitute of value but these now command a good price on the market. The rapidity with which the yield from timbers has advanced durin* the ten years under review is indeed remarkable, for while it has been quadrupled during that period the yield from firewood has only been doubled. Expenditure. — With the increase in the gross yield, the ex- penditures have necessarily been expanded. In 1892 the expenditure stood at 522,762 yen, but during the subsequent ten years the amount has been almost doubled and has risen to 1,029,966 yen- This increase, though partly due to the rise of wages and of the price of commodities, a phenonieno.i inseparable from the progress of the time, was more attributable to the expanded scope of improve- ment measures : — Year. Area. Management Working Expense Expense. bxpense. per cho. yen. yen. yen. yen. yen. 1892 7.54I.633 423,146 99,616 522,762 0.070 1895 7,715,793 402,789 180,085 582,874 0.076 1898 7,773,155 553.016 364,674 917,690 0.118 1901 hs 7,581,201 669,149 330,817 1,029,966 0.137 — 56 -^ Note : — The management expense includes salaries of officials, office expenses, tra- velling expense, repair of offices, etc. ; while the working expense comprise the cost of felling, transport, planting and all the other items incidental to the working of forests. As stated in the foregoing table the average managing expense per cho increased during the ten years under review from 0.056 yen to 0.082 yen, while the average of the working expense increased from 0.013 yen to 0.044 yen. In other words, while the rate of increase of management expenses is about 60 per cent., that of working expenses is as much as 340 per cent. The ratio of manage- ment expense is rather high as compared with working expense, the former constituting, on an average, 68 and the latter 22, if we take the total expense as 100. This comparatively high rate of manage- ment expense is explained by the enormous extent of the State forests, and especially the fact that most of them require a thorough re-organization, and all these involve extraodinary trouble and expense. However, the ratio between management expense and working expense is gradually recovering normal proportion, for while in 1892 the management expense bore to the working expense the ratio of 21 to 5, in 1901 the proportion became 21 to 10. Tne proportion is sure to become more satisfactory when the second forestry adjustment programme now being carried out shall have been completed. Profit. — Forestry yield is obtained by deducting from the gross receipts the working expense, while the net profit consist of what remains after the management expense has been deducted from the remainder. Calculated in that way, the net profit of State-forests stands thus : — Year. Total Area. Gross Receipts. Gross Dis- bursements. Net Profit. Profit per cho. 1892 7,541,633 811,059 522,762 288,292 0.038 1895 7,715.793 998,620 582,874 415,746 0.054 1898 7,773,155 1,451,666 917,690 533,976 0.069 1901 7,586,201 2,176,522 1,029,966 1,146,556 0.151 The net profit per c/w, as stated in the foregoing table, has increased from 0.038 to 0.1f)l compared witli the utilization area. The rate per cho was 0.212 yen in 1892 and it advanced to 0.72 yen ten years after. Data About the Imperial Forests. — As forests that were comparatively regular in aspect were selected as Imperial forests ou the occasion of setting apart a part of State forests as property of Imperial estate, the forests belonging to this special class, besides being easy to manage, are rich in conifers and valuable timber-trees, so that the harvest is more satisfactory than that in State forests. The harvest during the ten years commencing in 1892 is stated below : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jhne. Shaku-jime. Shaku-jime. Timbers 803,026 588,692 685,193 1,110,324 Firewood 723,321 500,820 555>468 848,316 Total 1,526,347 1,089,512 1,240,661 1,95^,140 Total Area 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093,404 Harvest per r/z<7 044 0.51 0.59 0.94 The average harvest per dio that was 0.44 in 1892 increased to 0.94 ten years after, an increase of more than two-fold. The statistics on financial side are as follows : — 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. yen. yen. yen. yen. Timbers 226,709 327,644 752,585 845,139 Firewood 5o»i3i 50,604 62,867 83,291 Fagots, Stump - Wood, \ root, etc / 163 3,141 3,196 4,636 Minor Produce 13.655 18,619 22,894 29,402 Rent 19,724 29,433 54,770 11.^^1 Sundries 28,647 30,150 34,346 74,089 Total 340,027 459,591 930,658 1,114,224 Total Area 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,09 1 ,066 2,093,404 Yield per cho 0.099 0.218 0.445 0.532 Just as jn the case of the State forests, with the progress of the work of management along the economic line, the volume of the harvest and the amount of the gross receipts are gradully increasing, to make a still greater development as that work proceeds. Then the — 58 — financial results of the administration of the Imperial forests are somewhat better, owing to the reasons mentioned above, than in the case of the State forests, for the gross receipts that stood at 0.095 yen i3er clio in 1892 advanced to 0.533 in 1901. As might naturally be expected, expense has also advanced. 1892. 1895. 1898. 1901. Total Area (r/^^) 3,478,007 2,108,720 2,091,066 2,093404 Management Expense (/m) ... 106,154 110,138 115,291 147,734 Working Expense {yen) 208,157 I95>594 3^9,954 49^,686 Total (^^) 314,311 305,732 485,245 644,420 Expense per r//c7 (jv;z) 0.090 0.145 0.232 0.308 In res2)ect to the increase of expense, the Imperial forests are very much like the State forests, for during the period under review the rate per clio increased from 0.09 yen to 0.308 yen. However, in contrast to the corresi^onding state of affairs in State forests, the ratio between the management expense and the working expense is entirely reversed, the former constituting only 27 and the lat(;er 73, out of the total expenses of 100, This com^ parative smallness of the management expense in the Imperia- forests is explained by the fact that the forests, owing to their convenient location, and on account of their being comjoaratively well-organized do not require any large amount of money to be spent on them. Thus while State forests required in 1901 manage- ment expense amounting to 0.092 yen per cho the corresponding figure in Imj^erial forests was only 0.071. On the other hand, the average working expense of State forests in the year mentioned was 0.045 yen per cho against 0.337 in case of the other forests. This remarkable difference between the two is ascribable to the fact that while in State forests the forests-produce to be sold is generally «'agano Osaka Hiroshima Kochi Kumamoto Kagoshima Total ... Location Aomori, Mutsu Akita, Ugo Sendai, Riknzen Tokyo, Musashi Nagano, Shinano Osaka, Settsu ... .. Hiroshima, Aki Kochi, Tosa Kumamoto, Higo .. Kagoshima, Satsuma State-Forests under Control Tin thousand cho\ 1,370 1,091 1,286 936 931 567 281 336 331 446 7,575 No. of Minor Forest Offices. 35 21 34 23 14 20 27 40 24 270 No. of Protection Stations* 173 95 150 89 64 98 169 122 158 141 1,259 The foregoing table will show that the extent of the Major Forest Office's jurisdiction lies between the two extremes of 1,370,000 cho of Aomori and 281,000 cko of Hiroshima, the average for the whole })eing 757,500 approximately. A greater diversity is noticeable in the jurisdiction of Minor Forest Offices, this diversity being unavoid- able in such a country as Japan where systematic forestry management is still in the inception stage and where means of communication are as yet imperfect, and the formation of forests is irregular. Thus while the Matsuyaraa Minor Office under the Kr)chi Major Office, controls only — 61 — 2,000 cliOy that of liyaraa under the Nagano Major Office, controls as much as 396,000 cho. The average for all the Minor Offices is 28,000 cho. It is natural that, with the progress of the work of economic management, the extent of jurisdiction of a Major and a Minor Forest Office will become more limited. The number of protection stations also differs according to places. The average number to each Minor Office is three to eight, but in some exceptional cases as in that of the Tsunodate IMinor Office which is subordinate to the Akita Major Office the number is as many as ten. The foregoing organization applies to the State -forests under the control of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce but there are other kinds of State-forests in charge of other Departments of State. The State forests in Hokkaido and Formosa are subject to the supervision of the Minister of Home Affairs. The State forests in Okinawa, the seven islands of Izu, and Ogasawara, though belonging to the jurisdiction of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, are left for the convenience of the local administration, in charge of the respective local authorities who manage them subject to the supervision of the Minister of Agricul- ture and Commerce. YIII. FORESTRY EDUCATION. Collegiate Courses. — The remark that the progress of indus- try is a faithful reflection of the progress of education is fittingly exemplified in the case of our forestry industry, for the recent striking development in our forestry economy must be regarded as an outcome of a similarly striking development in sylvicultural education. It was in 1882 that the Tokyo Dendrological School, the first of its kind in Japan, was established at Nishigahara, but now at no less than 62 institutions the science and art of forestry is taught. Of that number three are imparting collegiate education, five a special course on forestry of secondary education grade, another five — 62 — are giving a special course on the same subject of a somewhat lower grade, while the remaining 48 are imparting a general knowledge •of forestry as a subsidiary subject to one or another of the main courses of practical education. It ought to be noted here that formerly all the important educational organs on forestry were sub- joined to the Department of Agriculture and Commerce, but as it was judged more convenient to have them, transferred to tlie control of the Department of Education, this transfer was effected in 1890. The College of Agriculture of the Imperial University of Tokyo, the Sapporo Agricultural College, and the High Agricultural and Dendrological School at Iwate, are the three collegiate institu- tions in question. In all of those collegiate courses, in compliance with the demand of the Government forestry authorities and of general foresters, special attention is paid to the training of specialists who are to combine adequate scientific and practical knowledge on forestry, and who, on leaving school, are qualified to attend with efi[iciency to the duty of Hianaging and improving our forests^ The Government is giving special encouragement to the study of this useful science, by offering to the graduates comparatively good posts. The College of Agriculture is also provided with a briefer course on agriculture and dendrology. BciiooLS OF Secondary Grade. — The five schools of secondary education grade where a special course on dendrology is taught are as follows : — Kiso Dendrological School Nishi Chikuma, Nagano-ken. Aichi Agricultural and Dendrological School... Ilekkai-gun, Aichi-ken. Nara „ „ „ ,, ... Yoshino-gun, Nara-ken. Shiinane „ „ „ „ ... ^atsuka-gun, Shimane-ken. Arima „ „ », „ ••• Arima-gun, Hyogo-ken. These schools are either public or communal institutions, and are under th(; direct control of their respective local Governors. The Department of Education confines its interference merely to — 63 — matters regarding the unity of national practical education. Those schools receive a subsidy from the Treasury, the object of that subsidy being to encourage the cause of practical education. Then the students enjoy equal treatment as those at ordinary middle schools in respect of conscription service, ordinary civil service, etc. As these schools do not date back very far, they have not yet turned out any giaduates, but the number of stu- dents is steadily increasing, the attendance being 418 in all at present. Schools of lower grade. — The five schools of somewhat lower grade than tlie preceding ones are apprentice schools enjoying a grant-in-aid from the Treasury and are imparting an elementary knowledge of forestry to the students. The schools are m*aintained by communities which, from local circumstances, are interested in bringing up young men qualified to attend to forestry management and to exploit the forest industry. The course of instruction extends for three years, and according to the latest available returns the students number 417 for all the schools. Other Schools teaching forestry. — Of the schools whose curriculum includes forestry 37 are of the secondary education grade, and 11 are of the higher primary education grade. Establislied long time back the list of graduates includes 1,323 for the former and 108 for the latter, while, at present the schools of higher grade have 4,364 attendants and the others 782. As most of those schools teach agriculture, fishery or stock- farming besides giving instruction in forestry, the field of their service is very wide and their service may be easily avail- able even in places where the engagement of forest sj^ecialists is not possible. Training Schools. — Lastly a short remark may be made about the Forestry Training School established at the Experimental Forestry Station at Meguro under the control of the Forestry Bureau of the Department of Agriculture and Commerce. The school is intend'id to train men who are to attend to the management of State forests and to engineering work, so that the course of study comprises forestry, geodesic and triangular surveying and topo- graphical-drawinp". It is the main idea of this institution to imjiart — 64 -. training of a thoroughly practical nature to as many students as possible within the shortest terms compatible with the demand of instruction. IX. FORESTRY LEGISLATURE. The Forest Law already mentioned contains provisions about the control of utilization forests, protection forests, forest police, punitive rules, etc. A number of Imperial Ordinances for putting in operation the said law were promulgated at the same time, these Ordinances relat- ing to the Local Forestry Council Rules, Conversion and Release of Protection Forests, Rules for putting the Forest Law into Operation, Rules for compensating Damage of Protection Forests, Rules for managing Protection Forests, Rules relating to the Protection Forest Register, etc. The Register in question is of two kinds, one relating to privately owned forests and to be kept at the respective local offices, and the other relating to State forests and to be kept at the Major Forest Office concerned. The control of State forests and plains is regulated by the Law relating to State Forests and Plains promulgated in March 1899 and it has attached to it a number of Rules and Regulations for putting it in execution. The Law relating to the Restoration of State Forests and Plains to Original Owners was issued in April 1899, and by issuing at the same time several rules appertaining thereof measures were devised for returning to original owners State forests and plains in* corporated into State property, provided the alleged owner's claim is judged to rest on valid ground. This special arrangement has been adopted in view of the fact that not a few cases of incoporation hasti- ly made soon after the Restoration have subsequently been discover- ed to have been not quite justifiable. The existence of the Forestry Fund as an account independent of general account is a special feature in regard to tlie finance of forests and plains belonging to the State, the fund in question being employed for the special exploitation of forests, such as the survey- — 65 — ing of State forests and plains, drawing up of their working plans, their planting, parchase of forests, etc. The official organization of offices dealing with State forests and plains has been determined either in the shape of Imperial or De- partmental Ordinances. LIBRARY FACNI ' OF FORESTRY U 1^ TOr>n^|T0 SD 225 19u^ Japan. Korinsho. 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